Oedipus Rex

Objectives ‑ Greek Drama

Greek Theater

• 1. To identify the roles of suspense and anticipation in Greek dramas
• 2. To discuss the value of voice and facial expression to ancient Greek actors
• 3. To name the Greek dramatists whose works remain extant and to associate Thespis’, Aeschylus’, Sophocles’ and Euripides’ contributions to the development of drama
• 4. To identify the two principal sources of Greek drama
• 5. To explain at least three functions of the chorus
• 6. To identify the god with whom drama was most closely associated

Drama Definitions

• 1. To define each of the listed terms
• 2. To explain Aristotle’s three unities
• 3. To explain Aristotle’s five criteria for a good protagonist

The Play

Background ‑ The Greek Theater

Although dramatic literature is as old as the art of story‑telling, our idea of what a play is begins in the Golden Age of Greece. For the Greeks, as for us, a play is a set of words to be spoken by actors which pretends to unfold certain events as well as the thoughts and feelings of two or more characters. If we could view an ancient performance, we would notice more similarities. Both Greek and modern plays focus on the portrayal of conflict. Examples of dramas from either era state ultimate truths about human nature through specific actions and thoughts of characters. Playwrights from both eras can be seen to manipulate symbols and myths to express those truths. Even though examples are rare, some modern plays even include a chorus or present the dialogue in verse as did ancient Greek plays. Whether comedy or tragedy, whether Greek or modern, plays set out to be some form of art that expresses both the inner and outer aspects of our human condition.

In ancient Greece, however, theater served as religious expression seeking to produce an idealized, that is heightened, representation of life. Modern theater tends to be more realistic or representational. The Greek dramas were originally produced by citizen performers for citizen audiences. Playwrights were motivated by love of art and hope of renown, not by the need for financial success or as a means of livelihood. Further, Greek drama depicted life while modern drama portrays it. Anticipation played the role that suspense plays today, just as dramatic irony was more important than discovery. Greek dramatists concentrated on how a thing was done rather than on what was done. Finally, they talked about violence but did not display it on stage.

Ancient performances differed remarkably from modern presentations. Only male citizens performed; women were forbidden the stage. The actors wore masks, facilitating the visual expression of emotion to spectators far away and allowing an actor to play more than one role. The Greeks always presented their plays without break and always outdoors. Finally, they also used a chorus, a group of twelve to fifty men who sang or chanted their lines in unison. Like some modern dramatists, however, the Greek writers reinforced man’s belief in the value of living.

Greek drama arose from the worship of Dionysus, the Greek god of passion and renewed life. Tradition credits the legendary writer, Thespis, as the “Father of Drama” because he reputedly initiated the practice of separating an actor from the chorus. Thus, dramatic exchange and conflict began. Aristotle credits Aeschylus with introducing the second actor. The Greek dramatists drew their subjects principally from mythology but did sometimes also use contemporary history. Homer provided their favorite source of stories.

Whatever the source or story, the Greek dramatists dealt with emotion. The principal emotion operating in the protagonists of most Greek plays was hybris (or hubris), an overweening self‑assertion or pride. Such pride generally leads the protagonist to his or her downfall. To express this and other emotions, the Greek actor had to rely most upon his voice. The manipulation of sound through rigorous training ‑ fasting, dieting, voice‑testing ‑ helped the Greek actors to depict character and feeling that transcended the painted expression on their masks. An actor’s most valuable asset was his voice.

The chorus also played a most important role in the expression of the playwright’s thoughts. It acted as an intermediary between actors. It also represented the “man on the street,” sometimes commenting on the action, sometimes providing summaries of action that occurred offstage or before the first scene, and sometimes bringing information together. Acting as the playwright’s spokesman, the chorus emphasized the emotional and moral implications of the action by underlining the action or commenting on the characters. The chorus could relieve dramatic tension or intensify the emotional involvement of the audience.

The three great Greek tragedians were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Aristophanes was the comic dramatist contemporary with them. Sophocles won the most prizes at the annual dramatic competition, called the Dionysia. He took first place twenty‑four times. Aeschylus won often too, his last prize coming to him for the Oresteia, a trilogy. Euripides’ work, however, seems to have been too psychological and modern for his audience’s taste.

The world of drama, then, began in ancient Greece. Foremost among its founders were the four playwrights just named, all of them Athenians. Ironically, their works spread throughout the world through the actions of a Macedonian, not a Greek. Alexander the Great, who conquered Greece as well as most of the rest of the known world, spread his admiration of Greek culture even as he spread his political influence. Still, though Alexander is long dead, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes live on.

Study Guide ‑ The Greek Theater

• 1. Define play. Specifically, how does modern theater differ in purpose from ancient Greek theater? Who produced, performed, and viewed the ancient Greek dramas when they were first created? What motivated those ancient playwrights to create?
• 2. What element of plot served instead of suspense in Greek dramas? How did the Greek treatment of violence differ from our own?
• 3. Which citizens could not serve as actors? How did the presentation of the plays differ from the way in which plays are presented today? What concept did Greek drama tend to reinforce?
• 4. From the worship of which of the Olympian gods did Greek drama arise? Who is traditionally reputed to have introduced the first actor? What title does he merit? According to Aristotle, who intensified dramatic conflict by introducing the second actor?
• 5. Upon what sources did the Greek dramatists draw for their subjects? Who was their favorite source?
• 6. What is hubris?
• 7. What devices and techniques did Greek actors use to depict character and to display feelings? What was an actor’s most valuable asset?
• 8. List the functions of the chorus.
• 9. Name the three great Greek tragedians whose combined thirty‑three extant plays constitute our only examples of classical tragedy. Who was the single comic dramatist contemporary to those same tragedians whose work remains extant? Which tragedians won the prize most often? For which play did Aeschylus receive his last prize? Why did the original Greek audiences seem to reject the works of Euripides?
• 10. Greek culture spread most quickly after the fall of which city and center of culture?

Definitions ‑ Drama Terms

DRAMA — A composition in prose or verse portraying life or character by action; an action represented on the stage by means of dialogue and action and designed for theatrical performance.

TRAGEDY — A drama in which the tone is utterly serious. Often the protagonist is finally defeated. Tragedy is the story of human actions producing exceptional calamity and often ending in the death of a person of high estate.

EXPOSITION — The introduction of some of the characters and the establishment of the setting and atmosphere. It provides the facts necessary to understand the drama about to begin. It leads to the inciting force.

INCITING FORCE — The impelling motive that stimulates action in the plot and interest in the audience. It comes at the end of the exposition and at the beginning of the complication.

COMPLICATION — (Also called the RISING ACTION.) All the action from the inciting force to the climax. In the tragedy the fortunes of the protagonist increase during the complication. Some new characters may be introduced. It is the “tying of the knot.”

CLIMAX — The point in the tragedy at which a vital ‑ usually irrevocable ‑ decision is made. It is the turning point. In tragedy the protagonist’s fortunes decline from this point.

RESOLUTION — All the action from the climax to the catastrophe. It is usually shorter than the complication. It is the “untying of the knot.” In tragedy the fortunes of the protagonist decrease during the resolution.

CATASTROPHE — (Also called the DENOUEMENT.) The final defeat of the protagonist, it settles the fate of the protagonist. Usually the protagonist loses his/her life. The catastrophe ends the conflict.

CONFLICT — The struggle that grows out of the interplay between two opposing forces. It provides interest and suspense. There are four major types of conflict.

• A. the opposition of physical forces
• B. the opposition of character elements
• C. the opposition of internal forces (spiritual struggle)
• D. the opposition of fate and will

CONCLUSION — The restoration of order. It handles all the important characters not otherwise accounted for. It explains the fate of the remaining characters.

PROTAGONIST — The principal or central character of the drama. He carries on a conflict with some sort of opposition.

ANTAGONIST — The opponent of the protagonist. He struggles against the protagonist.

HYBRIS (HUBRIS) — Wanton violence, arising from pride. An outrage, despiteful treatment. An error in judgement may arise from hybris. In Greek drama hybris is usually understood as the sin of excessive pride.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

The Unity of Time — The action of a drama should not occupy more than twenty‑four hours. Aristotle mentions this unity only as a general practice, not as a set rule.

The Unity of Place — The action should take place in one place. Aristotle barely refers to this unity.

The Unity of Action — The play should consist of one main action, to the carrying out of which everything in the play must be subservient. Aristotle insists on this unity as necessary: if the play is to be a whole, it must be one; that is, there must be unity of action.

Catharsis — “A cleaning, a purification.” Catharsis is purging of the spectators’ emotions. The pity and fear excited by the tragic action purge by modifying or repelling passion. Catharsis is a purification of the emotions through imaginative participation in the suffering of others. It produces a mood of emotional release and intellectual serenity induced by tragic literature. It is a feeling of reconciliation, sometimes exultation.

Five Rules for a Good Protagonist

• 1. The protagonist must not be a perfectly good person brought from prosperity to adversity.
• 2. The protagonist must not be a bad person passing from adversity to prosperity.
• 3. The protagonist should not be an utter villain to begin with. Such a person lacks pity and terror.
• 4. The protagonist must be a person not absolutely or eminently good or wise who is brought to disaster not by sheer depravity but by some error or frailty (called a “tragic flaw”).
• 5. The protagonist must be highly renowned or prosperous or illustrious. The more eminent the protagonist is, the more evident is the disaster. This condition lends greatness and dignity. The fate of such a person affects that of many others. Downfall from a high place is more impressive than downfall from a low place. The protagonist must engage sympathy, no matter how gross his/her error. The protagonist must be felt to be a person like oneself.

Study Guide ‑ Drama Terms

• 1. Differentiate between the general term drama and the specific term tragic drama.
• 2. Label the following diagram using these terms: exposition, inciting force, complication, crisis, climax, resolution, catastrophe, and conclusion. Explain each term and its role in the plot thoroughly.
• 3. Define conflict. What is the function of conflict in a drama? What are the three major types of dramatic conflict? Cite examples of each from the reading we have done so far in the course ‑ or from reading you have done outside the course.
• 4. Differentiate between protagonist and antagonist. In addition, use a dictionary to discover their etymological meanings; apply those meanings to their usage in the drama.
• 5. List and thoroughly explain each of Aristotle’s three unities.
• 6. Explain catharsis. Use a movie you have seen that achieves catharsis to explain the term.
• 7. Explain Aristotle’s five criteria for a good protagonist. Does Odysseus fit these criteria? Does Moses? Does Gilgamesh?

Worksheet ‑ Analyzing a Greek Drama

• I. Setting

  • A. What is the geographical location of the story?
  • B. During what era or during whose reign does the story unfold?
  • C. What is the atmosphere of the drama?
  • D. In what milieu do the characters live? That is, what are the significant surroundings?

• II. Characters

  • A. Who is the protagonist?
  • B. Who/What is the antagonist?
  • C. Who are the other major characters?
    • 1. Are they one ‑, two‑, or three‑dimensional characters?
    • 2. Are they static (unchanging) or dynamic (changing) characters?
  • D. Who are the minor characters?
    • 1. Are they one‑, two‑, or three‑dimensional characters?
    • 2. Are they static or dynamic characters?
  • E. Who constitutes the chorus?
  • F. What are the motivations of each character?

• III. Plot

  • A. What information is conveyed in the exposition?
  • B. What is the inciting force?
  • C. What complications does the protagonist face?
  • D. At what point does the climax take place?
  • E. What decline in fortunes does the protagonist experience in the falling action (resolution)?
  • F. How are matters left in the conclusion?

• IV. Theme

  • A. What aspect of human nature does the playwright seem to be examining?
  • B. What statement (or observation) about the human condition does the playwright seem to be making?
  • C. What universal ideas recur throughout the plot? (These are sometimes called MOTIFS, and may also appear in images.)

• V. Aristotle’s Poetics

  • A. The protagonist
    • 1. Is the protagonist a perfectly good person brought from prosperity to adversity?
    • 2. Is the protagonist a bad person passing from adversity to prosperity?
    • 3. Is the protagonist an utter villain from the start?
    • 4. Is the protagonist a person absolutely or eminently good or wise who is brought to disaster by some error or frailty rather than by sheer depravity?
    • 5. Is the protagonist highly renowned or prosperous or illustrious?
  • B. The Unities
    • 1. Is the action restricted to one twenty‑four hour period?
    • 2. Is the action restricted to one geographical location?
    • 3. Does the play consist of one main action ‑ to the carrying on of which everything else in the play is subservient? Does one mood predominate?

• C. Catharsis

  • 1. Does the action arouse either pity or fear?
  • 2. Does the action produce a mood of emotional release or intellectual serenity?

Study Guide ‑ Oedipus Rex

See the Oedipus Rex study guide.

Essay ‑ The Oresteia

• 1. Select one ‑ and only one ‑ of the topic options listed below.
• 2. Write a composition of five (5) to eight (8) paragraphs, including a clear introduction, a well‑developed body, and a summary conclusion.
• 3. Use specific details and examples, fully explained reasons, and/or clearly organized incidents from the work to develop your essay response. Be specific.
• 4. Have a definite plan for the organization of your paper ‑ either on paper in the form of an outline or in your head in the form of clearly logical thought. (You need not turn in an outline.)
• 5. Use linking expressions and transitions to identify the movement of your thoughts, the organization of your plan, the relationship of your points. (For example, use words such as first, second, third, another, additionally, on the contrary, on the other hand, since, because, although, however, consequently, and so on.)
• 6. Stick to the question you select. Do not attempt ‑ do not even ask ‑ to combine any of the options below.
• 7. Remember that an A paper is superior in content and style, going beyond merely answering the question to answer it in a pleasing, engaging, or creative way. A B paper may differ from an A paper on points of style: the B paper may not have employed sentence or diction variety, for example. A C paper is an average paper: it answers the question but with a minimum of detail and little concern for style. A D or F paper depends primarily on trying to do a “snow job” on the teacher. It substitutes generalizations for specific details and deceptive reasoning for clear thinking. In all cases, of course, the grade depends on readability and mechanical correctness, too.

OPTIONS

• 1. Analyze the concept of hubris. Show how the protagonist(s) in each play exhibit that overweening pride. Explain how it leads to the downfall of any human who succumbs to it.